THE ATOMIC BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA
WWII
Following the deaths of Mussolini and Hitler in Europe, the focus of the Second World War moved to the Pacific theatre. There, the two occupied islands of Iwo Jima and Saipan, and finally the Japanese homeland island of Okinawa were eventually taken in the face of fanatical and tenacious Japanese resistance - each at enormous cost to the Americans.
The Japanese Empire intended to make the planned American invasion of the Japanese home islands hugely costly in lives by using suicide attacks of all descriptions, and the motto "One hundred million [Japanese] will die for the Emperor and Nation" was widely spoken of....
The Japanese Empire intended to make the planned American invasion of the Japanese home islands hugely costly in lives by using suicide attacks of all descriptions, and the motto "One hundred million [Japanese] will die for the Emperor and Nation" was widely spoken of....
Hiroshima City
August 6th 1945, 0800HRS.....
Down at ground level, the people of Hiroshima were busily getting started on another Monday morning. Hiroshima had not been significantly bombed up to that point, and it was generally believed that it was simply a matter of time before the first big air raid. There had even been some speculation that the Americans might be saving "something special" for Hiroshima.
Target Hiroshima
Hiroshima (reconnaissance photograph)
Earlier that morning, an air raid warning had sounded at 0709 HRS, and some took cover in the air raid shelters as a solitary B-29 passed overhead. Unbeknownst to them, this was the weather observation plane Straight Flush making an assessment of the weather conditions over Hiroshima before the atomic mission. Once it had left, the all-clear sounded at 0731 HRS and the populace re-emerged to get on with their busy schedules. Supervised school children were busy dismantling buildings to create fire lanes. Cadets were learning how to hurl themselves (whilst carrying mines) under fake tanks, in preparation for the expected allied invasion. Soldiers were exercising on the parade ground, and thousands of workmen and women were streaming into the city by foot, bicycle and streetcar to work in the multitude of factories dotted about the city.
The Enola Gay arrives
USAAF B29
At 0814, the distant drone of B-29's were heard, and on looking up, three tiny silver-coloured aircraft could be seen. Trailing them were easily visible streams of white vapour across the cobalt blue sky. Many pointed them out, correctly identifying them as B-29's. No-one was particularly alarmed as they were obviously not a mass bomber formation. When one Japanese housewife saw a parachute appear, she joked to a neighbour that the Americans might be sending them boxes of chocolates. A group of enthusiastic workmen spontaneously gathered to find and capture any American airmen that may have bailed out.
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Pika
US test detonation (1953)
Japanese survivors refer to the explosion as the "pikadon", or flashboom. Those survivors located in the city itself frequently did not register the gigantic roar of the explosion, so often refer to it just as "pika", or flash.
The initial light was extremely bright indeed, with a peculiar blinding intensity of whiteness reminiscent of burning magnesium. It lasted between 2 and 3 seconds, and those people who were looking up at the B-29's had their faces exposed to the huge release of radiant heat. An impressive 35% of the bomb’s total energy was released in the form of UV, infrared, visible and other electromagnetic radiation contributing to the thermal pulse. The energy of the flash was so great the hills to the North of Hiroshima turned a deep brown from their usual pine-colored green. The immense heat made roof tiles bubble. The surface millimeter or two of areas of polished marble became superheated and exploded, thereby roughening the surface. The same superficial scorching effect occurred on telegraph poles, with the surfaces directly facing the detonation becoming charred (but only to a depth of just a few millimeters).
The initial light was extremely bright indeed, with a peculiar blinding intensity of whiteness reminiscent of burning magnesium. It lasted between 2 and 3 seconds, and those people who were looking up at the B-29's had their faces exposed to the huge release of radiant heat. An impressive 35% of the bomb’s total energy was released in the form of UV, infrared, visible and other electromagnetic radiation contributing to the thermal pulse. The energy of the flash was so great the hills to the North of Hiroshima turned a deep brown from their usual pine-colored green. The immense heat made roof tiles bubble. The surface millimeter or two of areas of polished marble became superheated and exploded, thereby roughening the surface. The same superficial scorching effect occurred on telegraph poles, with the surfaces directly facing the detonation becoming charred (but only to a depth of just a few millimeters).
Shadows
Human shadow on bank steps, Hiroshima
A similar shallow burning affect occurred to people’s skin. Often, only the first few millimeters were burnt, possibly exacerbated by the energy absorbed by the skin’s pigment layer. Many found they were not burnt under pale clothes, especially white clothing. It being a summer day in August, quite a few of the populace were wearing short sleeves. For those with large areas of unprotected skin, the effects were catastrophic. Exposed bodies shriveled with "a hiss like that of dried cuttlefish when you grill it". Contrary to popular belief, no-one was vaporized when the bomb detonated. This would have required the fireball to touch the ground, which it did not. (The fireball was approximately 370 meters in radius). Those people unfortunate enough to have been in the vicinity of the hypocenter were instead terribly burned. Many people left discernable markings on the ground, where their shadows from the light of the fireball had fallen. One shadow clearly indicated a man in a cart about to whip his horse. Another man, who had been sitting on some steps near Fujiyama Park, left a shadow on the wall behind him. When he was helped up by a bystander (Asae Miyakoshi), the skin on his burned hands slipped off and he fell slowly back to the ground.
Severe flashburns
Severe facial flashburns to a female casualty at Hiroshima
Closer to the hypocenter, Imperial Japanese soldiers were carrying out their morning exercise whilst bared to the waist when the detonation occurred. They suffered the most appalling burns, to the extent that the front and back of their heads were hard to distinguish. However, even with these individuals who were located so close to the explosion, the tops of their heads were adequately protected merely by their cloth military caps, leaving their hair undamaged.
Moderate flashburns
Flashburn injury sustained at 2km range
Further away from the hypocenter, many people caught out in the open were burned.
Exposed areas of skin were subject to flash burns on the side facing the explosion.
Again, clothing was highly protective.
For those in the peripheral areas of the city, the thermal pulse was markedly less severe - it instead felt like the sudden opening of an oven door. These individuals sometimes had mild flashburns resembling sunburn.
"DON" (boom)
After the thermal pulse came the blastwave. This expanding wall of compressed air slammed into the city like a giant fist, smashing the mostly wooden buildings into giant piles of kindling. In most concrete buildings, windows were blown in on one side and blown out on the other, and often the entire window frame would be propelled into the room. Many bridges were destroyed. Even the railway lines were shifted sideways, where they ran perpendicular to the direction of the blastwave. The bowl-shaped topography of Hiroshima is believed to have maximized the extent of the damage from the blastwave.
One recurring phenomenon which seemed to affect great numbers of people was the widespread loss of consciousness around the time of the blast. As a result, many people around the environs of the city did not even register the sound of the explosion. Huge numbers also recovered consciousness to find themselves covered in debris or trapped under collapsed buildings. Some managed to burrow their way out, emerging from the wreckage to find themselves in an unrecognizable environment - familiar landmarks were nowhere to be seen.
One recurring phenomenon which seemed to affect great numbers of people was the widespread loss of consciousness around the time of the blast. As a result, many people around the environs of the city did not even register the sound of the explosion. Huge numbers also recovered consciousness to find themselves covered in debris or trapped under collapsed buildings. Some managed to burrow their way out, emerging from the wreckage to find themselves in an unrecognizable environment - familiar landmarks were nowhere to be seen.
A strange dusty twilight
Minutes after detonation
Above the city, the airburst had created a vast, rapidly rising column of orange-white smoke within which could be glimpsed an intense pillar of fire with innumerable strange and intense colors.
Below this column, the blastwave had kicked up a huge cloud of brown dust, obscuring the wreckage of newly collapsed wood-frame buildings.
Even though it was actually a bright and sunny summer morning, the city and its inhabitants were cloaked in a hellish twilight. As survivors recovered consciousness, they could scarcely believe the scenes of carnage and destruction surrounding them through the gloom.
The light levels remained very low for 3 - 10 minutes.
Concrete versus wooden buildings
Hiroshima - Concrete buildings SURVIVED
Most of the wooden structures within 1.25 miles of the hypocenter had collapsed, and a few houses continued to collapse for several minutes after the initial shock. Several people recount walking out of their homes to survey the damage outside only to find their wooden constructed homes collapsing behind them. Brick built and masonry buildings fared a little better, and reinforced concrete structures proved to be the most resistant to collapse. Smoke stacks, despite their height and slenderness, were curiously resistant to collapse. In the cemetery, most of the gravestones were knocked over, and throughout the city the electricity and telephone poles were snapped, and trees were broken or even uprooted.
Many survivors mistakenly believed the detonation had been a local event, that only their own building or just their street had been affected by a direct hit. It was profoundly shocking when they ventured further afield and saw that about 60% of Hiroshima was in ruins.
Many survivors mistakenly believed the detonation had been a local event, that only their own building or just their street had been affected by a direct hit. It was profoundly shocking when they ventured further afield and saw that about 60% of Hiroshima was in ruins.
Hours after detonation
Pronounced thirst was common
Amongst the initial survivors, few spoke, but those that were able to were piteously crying "Mizu! Mizu!" for water. There was clearly extreme thirst, as wherever water was to be found, people would gather around to drink.
Many died promptly after consuming water, perhaps because the extreme raging thirst had been abated and this led to a reduction in their "sympathetic drives" (of their autonomic nervous systems). As a result, water butts, wells, ponds, cisterns or other collections of water were often punctuated by dead bodies strewn about the immediate vicinity.
Images from hell
Injuries accurately depicted in a movie scene from "Black Rain"
Some of the casualtles who were able to walk took to the roads. Silently, they shuffled along alone, and then subsequently formed into long lines, slowly moving out of the area. Some had their spectacles, shirts, or shoes blown off by the blast. Others had their clothing torn and tattered, covered in blood and dust. A significant number found themselves stripped completely naked by the blastwave. Some had terrible burns obliterating their faces, even to the extent of facial bones becoming visible, and a considerable proportion had their skin hanging down in strips. Those with painful burns on their limbs walked in a very characteristic manner, with their arms held outwards, away from their bodies in an effort to stop the excruciating rubbing. Witnesses they shuffled past in the outer Hiroshima districts thought they looked like forlorn ghosts or the living dead. A striking number of witnesses describe thinking that it was as if they were in hell, as the horrifying sights were exactly what they had imagined as hell from medieval paintings. There were substantial numbers leaving the city in this way, burnt and irradiated, each clearly with minimal chances of survival. One witness describes them smelling strongly of burnt hair and silently shuffling past her house all night, and in the morning finding corpses lining the sides of the road.
Others, instead of using the roads out of town, headed for the train stations. At Koi Station (in the West of Hiroshima) the platform was completely packed with injured, both standing and lying, many of whom were pleading for water.
Others, instead of using the roads out of town, headed for the train stations. At Koi Station (in the West of Hiroshima) the platform was completely packed with injured, both standing and lying, many of whom were pleading for water.
Buried under rubble
-only a few escape
Movie still from "Hiroshima, mon amour"
Meanwhile, very large numbers of people were buried under the wreckage of their homes or at work. As they lay trapped, many called out for help - "Tasukete kure!". Some were indeed rescued after desperate digging by members of their family or by a neighbor, but many others received no help, as those in the streets were often overwhelmed with their own desperate struggle for survival. Those buried under the wooden wreckage could often hear other trapped individuals, and bizarre conversations occurred between people as they lay trapped or injured, awaiting their fate....
Black rain
Hiroshima wall stained with black rain
About 30 - 40 minutes after the explosion, brief showers of rain occurred across the northwest of the city.
The raindrops that fell were huge - the size of marbles - and were oily and black, discoloring clothing they landed upon. It was very bizarre and only added to feelings of disorientation, consternation and bewilderment.
The strange showers were not widespread enough, nor did they last long enough to quell the developing fires.
Cooking Brazier
In the hour after the bombing, small fires started to develop, which proceeded to consume the great tangled mass of collapsed housing that lay all across the city centre. The immediate cause of the fires was thought likely due to the innumerable charcoal cooking braziers or "konro" which had, of course, been alight at 0815 HRS - breakfast time.
The numerous fires grew very rapidly in the wooden debris and even vaulted across roadways and fire lanes via showers of flaming debris and glowing embers (firebrands) which swirled violently upwards and then floated gently down through the air.
A firestorm develops
Numerous casualties trapped in the wreckage were burned to death
After about an hour, the various well-established fires had grown and coalesced into one great fire. The huge volume of hot, buoyant air over the burning city center started rising, initiating a process called "stacking". This tremendous upward movement of air drew in an unnatural and powerful surface wind which blew very strongly into the city center from all directions. This created an effect that is akin to using air bellows on a fireplace, and it substantially increased the intensity of the fire. The physical process of the Hiroshima firestorm was identical in nature to the firestorms in Germany that destroyed the centers of Hamburg and Dresden after conventional aerial bombing. The firestorm resulted in a furnace-like environment throughout the city center, with its outer boundaries marked by huge walls of flame. It raged between 11 am and 3 pm, and almost everything and everyone within it was destroyed. It is not generally appreciated that it was the firestorm - rather than the initial effects of the atomic detonation - that resulted in a shocking flat and featureless wasteland, the image of utter destruction with which we are all familiar from photographs of Hiroshima.
Hirohito
Emperor Hirohito coronation photo
They say truth is stranger than fiction, and many people recounted their astonishing and bizarre experiences in the days following the pika. In one case, a man was very proud and excited about his successfully saving of the framed portrait of the beloved Emperor from the fires that were developing. Mr Asuda, who had specifically been assigned the duty of protecting the picture, and three others took the picture from behind its security grill and carried it through the blasted ruins. They headed for the comparative safety of Hiroshima Castle, where little smoke was to be seen, with the aim of ultimately delivering it to the army’s West Drill Field. However, once at the Castle, they heard the West Drill Field was threatened with fire so instead they decided to head over to Asano Sentei Park. Unfortunately, by the time they reached the park, it too had caught fire and all along the western edge there were crowds of injured people on the river bank trying to escape from the burning pine trees. The mass of frightened casualties obstructed their passage, so they called out "The Emperor’s Picture! The Emperor’s Picture!" and the crowd parted in awe and respect. Once they had reached the water, a Japanese officer drew his sword in ceremonial pose and a boat was eagerly presented to them. Everyone bowed down or saluted
- and thus the picture was successfully transported across the river, and to safety.
- and thus the picture was successfully transported across the river, and to safety.
River delta scenes
(Not hiroshima - illustrative only)
Many people ran to the river's edge driven by a raging thirst, and others to simply escape the flames. Many of them were already burned by the flash or had been injured by the blast. Crowds quickly formed on the banks and because of the pressure of people, they were obliged to wade into the mud of the riverbeds. Those who could not struggle their way through the mud were trampled and drowned. Meanwhile, others succumbed to their injuries and sank beneath the surface. Large numbers settled down in the mud and tried to splash themselves with water to soothe their burns or protect themselves from the heat of the firestorm that was building on the riverbanks. Those with some spare energy responded to desperate pleas and splashed their compatriots with water. Later, as the tide inevitably rose, great numbers found themselves incapable of struggling back through the mud to the riverbank. So they drowned, in their thousands. People arriving in Hiroshima later reported seeing the sandbanks littered with the dead. So thickly numerous lay the putrid and gas-filled floating bodies in some of the smaller rivers and creeks, that people were stepping on them to cross to the other side.
Swimming pools, ponds etc
(Not hiroshima - illustrative only)
In other parts of the city, people entered reservoirs and ponds or other collections of water (eg fire cisterns), but usually these bodies of water were insufficient to protect them. Many died from asphyxiation during the firestorm even if they managed to escape being burnt. One site where this is thought to have happened was at the Prefectural First Middle School, where the swimming pool was discovered filled with unburned bodies.
Destroyed Hiroshima firetruck
The firestorm abated after several hours - it burned itself out with no significant measures taken to fight it.
Not that firefighters were in a position to tackle the blaze - widespread damage to waterpipes throughout the city had resulted in a loss of water pressure. Many survivors recount broken pipes and pools of water forming. There were an estimated 70,000 breaks of water pipe connections above ground in Hiroshima, not to mention several fractured water mains as they crossed damaged bridges.
Survivors
DUSK
That evening, as the sun set in a dark red sky, the survivors made the best of it and tried to settle down for the night. The cries and moans of the wounded created a continuous audible sea of misery. Many found sleeping impossible, their thoughts racing over what they had been through, worrying over the fate of their relatives, as well as enduring the pain of their injuries and trying to control their fears - which frequently included the terrifying prospect of another atomic raid.
First-aid station
Around the periphery of the city, first-aid stations spontaneously formed in primary and secondary schools, shrines and temples, and other public buildings. Three hospitals still functioned after the explosion. They were constructed with reinforced concrete and so had not completely collapsed as had the surrounding Japanese style wooden dwellings. They were the Hiroshima Red Cross Hospital, the Hiroshima Communications Hospital (1.5 km from the hypocenter), and the Hiroshima Second Army Hospital. These hospitals quickly filled with the injured, with patients covering every available piece of floor space conceivable. The corridors, washrooms and even the stairwells became densely occupied with innumerable injured. Even the front steps and the entrances of the hospitals were claimed, and staff and relatives had to pick their way carefully over endless injured bodies, trying not to step on people. Rivulets of blood from lacerations threaded across floors. Relatives were expected to stay with casualties and provide basic care. Those unable to walk couldn’t reach the facilities, and so by the 9th August, the hospitals smelled strongly of feces, urine and vomit. Whilst the staff and patients eventually became accustomed to the stench, it was overpowering for visitors. In addition, each hospital had its own area for cremation, and these were alight each evening, filling the hospitals with the dreadful smell of burning human flesh. Some thought it similar to the smell of burning sardines.
Surviving Shinto shrine door frame
Same story in Nagasaki (pictured)
In Japanese culture there is an emphasis on giving due honor and respect for dead family members. In the days following the explosion, relatives trickled in from surrounding districts to reclaim the bones of their deceased relatives. They were seen forlornly picking through the rubble of their relatives homes, placing bones into boxes or bags for subsequent ceremonials. On walking through the ruins, the rubble was covered with a layer of ash and tiles, with an arm or leg protruding here and there. Left in its wake were thousands of fire-blackened corpses, surprisingly shrunken in size due to loss of body fluids. In the August heat, putrefaction of the bodies quickly set in. Blood-stained bubbles appeared at their nostrils and mouths, and the powerful stench was indescribable. Many corpses were bloated and naked, and along with the burns many relatives found it difficult to identify a body from its appearance. People frequently had to resort to using personal items (such as watches, jewelry and belt buckles) and the location of the body to help identify their dead.
Influx of personnel
On 10th August (the 4th day), both military and civilian relief teams began appearing in the city in large numbers. Nurses, first-aiders, soldiers and public utility repair workers were amongst them. Some were assigned the task of restoring the water pressure by hammering in pieces of wood to block up the damaged and gushing water pipes. Japanese soldiers were sent out in boats to collect thousands of bloated corpses from the canals, rivers and creeks. Once brought to the shore, other soldiers carried the bodies onto piles and burnt them with oil. Many of the relief teams were concentrating upon cremation of the bodies. The blasted city had numerous points of cremation, and for some, the multiple smoke plumes called to mind eerie ethereal bridges carrying the souls of the dead to heaven.
One team worker included a 19 year old Japanese kamikaze volunteer, seconded to relief work ahead of his military suicide mission planned for August 18th. He was busy collecting bodies the day after the blast when he was approached by a civilian woman in her twenties. She was horribly burned and was carrying her dead baby. She desperately pleaded with him to "cure" her baby, and when he finally took the little body in his arms, she collapsed to the ground and promptly died, even as he bent down to help her. Scenes such as these burned themselves into the minds of both fellow casualties and uninjured onlookers, often haunting them for the rest of their lives. Even decades later, intense images and searing feelings could resurface suddenly and they would relive their most agonizing moments of intense terror, horror, guilt or pity.
One team worker included a 19 year old Japanese kamikaze volunteer, seconded to relief work ahead of his military suicide mission planned for August 18th. He was busy collecting bodies the day after the blast when he was approached by a civilian woman in her twenties. She was horribly burned and was carrying her dead baby. She desperately pleaded with him to "cure" her baby, and when he finally took the little body in his arms, she collapsed to the ground and promptly died, even as he bent down to help her. Scenes such as these burned themselves into the minds of both fellow casualties and uninjured onlookers, often haunting them for the rest of their lives. Even decades later, intense images and searing feelings could resurface suddenly and they would relive their most agonizing moments of intense terror, horror, guilt or pity.
Evacuation of casualties
Marine Training Division Facility
Self-evacuation of the injured occurred spontaneously immediately after the pika. Generally, the direction of travel taken was directly away from the hypocenter. Those casualties who had left by foot ended up crammed in public buildings in surrounding towns and villages, including Saijo (20 miles east of Hiroshima) and Seno (SE of Hiroshima). Assisted evacuation was also organized. The injured were transported 10 miles by hospital train to Kure about a week afterwards. On the day itself, the Akatsuki Corps were very quick to respond (as were the 10th Marine Training Unit from Etajima Island). In total, they transported about 10,000 of the severely injured by motorboat and barges, via Ujina, to the islands of Ninoshima and Kanawajima. Ninoshima Island had a large Japanese Army quarantine and disinfection station, which was hurriedly converted into an emergency field hospital. So many casualties arrived that they had to use the nearby Horse Quarantine Station as an overflow facility. Other casualties ended up distributed in the towns near to Hiroshima, including Itsukaichi, Hatsukaichi, Miyajima Island and Otake.
ARS
Purple spots (purpura) are a sign of ARS.
After 2 weeks, a significant number of casualties who seemed to be on the road to recovery began developing mysterious symptoms. Their hair fell out, their gums bled, purple spots began appearing all over their bodies, and they developed infections. Sometimes the patient died, and sometimes they recovered.
Blood tests revealed they were deficient in the blood cells normally produced by the bone marrow - red cells, white cells and platelets. The condition was later named acute radiation syndrome (ARS).
The cause was the large release of intensely energetic gamma radiation from the nuclear fireball in the first few seconds of the explosion. People not shielded (by concrete walls, earth, etc) were irradiated and their bone marrows were damaged by this prompt radiation. There was not very much residual radiation exposure across Hiroshima, because the detonation was an airburst.
Blood tests revealed they were deficient in the blood cells normally produced by the bone marrow - red cells, white cells and platelets. The condition was later named acute radiation syndrome (ARS).
The cause was the large release of intensely energetic gamma radiation from the nuclear fireball in the first few seconds of the explosion. People not shielded (by concrete walls, earth, etc) were irradiated and their bone marrows were damaged by this prompt radiation. There was not very much residual radiation exposure across Hiroshima, because the detonation was an airburst.
A bizarre riot of color appears
About three weeks after the blast, a verdant carpet of fresh plant growth sprang up throughout the blasted and burnt city center. It is believed the radiation burst released by the fireball may have unnaturally stimulated germination. The flat, desolate wasteland was suddenly and unexpectedly covered in a riot of wild flowers and tender growing shoots. Oleanders, bluets, morning glories, sickle senna and day lilies bobbed in the warm summer breeze. To some bereaved survivors, the spectacle seemed indecent, almost obscene. Indeed, finding the occasional deformed flower acted as a reminder of the mysterious workings and almost diabolic power of atomic fission.
Supplies finally available
Hiroshima policeman signing papers for emergency supplies
Following the surrender of the Imperial Japanese forces, the very large stockpiles held in anticipation for use during the allied invasion by the Japanese Army became available. Blankets, food, bandages, etc. began arriving at the hospitals and first-aid stations.
Pilfering from the stockpiles also became widespread, and all manner of stored goods began appearing on the black market. Money became worthless and bartering became the main means of exchange. Along with the hyperinflation came severe food shortages. People living in intact homes bartered their best clothes, tools or anything else of value they had, in exchange for food.
The city rubble began to be "mined" by the survivors, with people spending all day rummaging or digging through the debris in search of valuable items.
Studying the effects
US servicemen standing at ground zero one month after detonation
The Japan-US Joint Commission and the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) studied a range of atomic cases at this site. Their medical studies were somewhat limited as they arrived a whole month after the explosion, by which time a large numbers of casualties had already died and been cremated. Nevertheless, they could still perform a comprehensive study of the physical damage to the city.
FACT SUMMARY
Enola Gay: B-29, USAAF, 409th Air Commanded by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Flying from Tinian Airbase Little Boy: Uranium fission bomb Second nuclear detonation in history Proximity, timing AND altimeter fuzing 16kt yield 64kg of U-235 was in the bomb, but it was very inefficient; just 1.7% of the Uranium-235 was converted Detonation was an airburst - at 600m altitude Minimal nuclear fallout (because it was an airburst, not a groundburst) Hiroshima: Selected on the basis of size, densely packed wooden buildings which would burn well, 2nd Army HQ, and topography Total population = 345,000 Total deaths = approximately 90,000 - 140,000 (an exact figure has never been established) Imperial Japanese soldiers killed = 20,000 Slight increase in leukemia cases (200 excess) Slight increase in solid cancer cases (eg thyroid cancer) |
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